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**Just wanted to give you some 411 on the test format. The test is scheduled for Tuesday 10/11/11. Its a long block after the long weekend hope that works for you. It will be designed to take roughly 60 minutes but you will have the 90 minutes to finish if needed. I will be doing notebook checks the day of the test so make sure you have it with you!**
 * Nice Work so far!!!**

30 Multiple Choice or Matching = 60% Writing Section Tasks (Flawed Study, Applying the Approaches to a Case or Situation, Designing a Study from a Hypothesis) = 40%
 * Test Format**

Notebook Check

**The History of Psychology**

The Great Eternal Questions: Who am I? Why do I feel this way?

The Greek Rationalists -"Know thyself." -Nothing in excess, need a balance. (introspection --> spending time reflecting on our own experiences)

In the Middle Ages there was - a world of conformity -a lack of knowledge about science (faith over reason) -trephination: //a surgical intervention in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the human skull. It was used in order to treat health problems related to intracranial diseases (mental disorders)//

-psychiatrists are doctors who went to medical school and are able to write prescriptions. -psychologists cannot prescribe medications but may work as a therapist or school counsolor. (just majored in psychology in college).

**The Scientists**

__Wilhelm Wundt__ -The establishment of the first psychology lab (University of Leipzig 1879) -Influence on the school of thought known as structuralism, which focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. -Support of experimental psychology set the stage for behaviorism -Introspection: an examination of one's own thoughts and feelings -"Father Of Psychology" -Wanted to train people to be very accurate in describing sensations they got from objects they touched

__Charles Darwin__ -English naturalist, eminent as a collector and geologist -He proposed and provided scientific evidence on Natural Selection: the idea that all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors -His discovery remains the foundation of biology

__William James__ -the father of American psychology. Influences: Pragmatism: the truth of an idea can never be proven. Focus on the usefulness of an idea. Functionalism: focused on the wholeness of an event, taking into the impact of the environment on behavior. James-Lange Theory of Emotion: proposes that an event triggers a physiological reaction, which we then interpret. Emotions are caused by our interpretations of these physiological reactions. First Psychological lab in America at Harvard In 1890 wrote the first psych textbook

__Ivan Pavlov__ -Research on physiology and digestion(of dogs) : found the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine -1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology -Demonstrated techniques of studying reactions to the environment in an objective, scientific method. media type="youtube" key="xEDxRCa_wfc" width="425" height="350"

__Sigmund Freud__ -Founder of Psychoanalysis: emphasized importance on subconscious mind -Developed the use of talk therapy -Freudian Slip: unconscious thoughts and impulses are expressed, often through slips of the tongue -wrote __Interpretation of Dreams__ in 1905

ID - instant gratification, internal desires Ego - balances the two Superego - adheres to the way one is “supposed to act,” and complies to pressures to be the perfect person

__John B Watson__ Outlined the basic principles of behaviorism Little Albert Experiment: conditioned a child to fear a rat -studied positive and negative reinforcements

__B. F. Skinner__ - Had concept of operant conditioning, which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior.

__Abraham Maslow__ -A Humanist who is famous for his theory known as the Hierarchy of Needs. The focus of this theory is that all human behavior is motivated to become better. Therefore, the steps in the hierarchy of needs is as follows: Physical Needs->Safety Needs->Love/Belonging->Self-Actualization (setting goals)

**The Approaches to Psychology**

-Studied how subconscious thoughts affect behavior/emotions with the goal of making the subconscious, conscious -Free Association techniques (e.g. word association, broad questions) -talking therapy -making unconscious, conscious -curing people(even if they don't know the problem) -Focuses on the past -Conversion disorder -Uses meditation and hypnosis
 * __Psychoanalytic Approach:__** //Sigmund Freud//

-Studied only measurable/observable qualities -> all about the future -Asked "How are we reinforced or rewarded and how does it elicit emotion/behavior later?" -ex. we smile at someone->they smile back -ex. Skinners box experiment: rewarded rats for pulling levers or pushing buttons and as a result they learned what order to pull levers in order to be rewarded. -Systematic desensitization: behavioral therapy used to help effectively overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders. -against Frued (disagree) -all behavior is learned, anything that can be learned can be unlearned media type="youtube" key="B_9ZZaPDtPk" height="315" width="420"
 * __Behavioral Approach:__** //John B Watson, Ivan Pavlov, BF Skinner//

-Focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, learning, problem solving, language and decision-making. -Applications: improve memory, increase decision-making accuracy, structure educational curricula to enhance learning. -Bandura's Bobo Doll Study: Children attacked a bobo doll after been shown a film of people attacking bobo dolls. -Dont want to study subconscious, people can verbalize how they feel
 * __Cognitive Approach:__** //Wilhelm Wundt, William James, Albert Bandura//

__**Neurobiological Approach:**__ -Focuses on thinking skills instead of previous learning or subconscious thoughts -Focuses on how the body reacts to the enviornment. - Problems are caused by chemical imbalance, misfiring nerves, etc.

__**Humanistic Approach:**__ //Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers// -Focused on each individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization (only you can fix your problems.) -Belief is that people are innately good, with mental and social problems resulting from deviations from this natural tendency. -Takes environmental influences into account; rather than focusing solely on our internal thoughts and desires -Hierarchy of needs -Client centered therapy

__**Sociocultural Approach:**__ -Based on the idea that society and culture shape cognition. (Social customs, beliefs, values, and language) -What a person thinks is based on his or her socio-cultural background -Takes into account more than the individual in attempting to understand cognitive processes

-Studies physiology and the brain (chemicals in the brain) -Emphasizes the physical and biological bases of behavior. -The approach has grown significantly over the last few decades (with advances in our ability to explore and understand the human brain and nervous system.) Techniques (MRI scans, PET scans) -Uses medicines like anti-depressants, stimulants, ect. -Psyco active drugs, electric shock therapy, lobotomy, psyco-surgery
 * __Biological/Medical Approach__**

**Disorder vs. Condition**

1. Disorder must last for a significant period of time (different for each disorder) and needs professional help 2. Behavioral response must be mal-adaptive for 4-6 weeks (interfering with daily living and interpersonal relationships)


 * ICETOES (Use when conducting a study) **

facto) || ∙ Personal Reaction, ∙ easier to qualify with ethical guidelines, ∙ ability to collect other info, personal behavior and reactions, ∙can ask follow-up questions -easy to conduct -can observe body language/reactions || ∙ Long Process, ∙ small amount of people, ∙ people can prepare themselves for answers(might not be completely honest) ∙ subject has own bias || person and learn everything about them) || ∙ Learn Cause and Effects, ∙ incredible depth and detail -help to develop profile || ∙ Limited To one conclusion about one individual ∙ May not have a positive correlation, making conclusions sometimes unhelpful || Effect Relationship (HIDE DICE), ∙ isolate one variable || ∙ Hard To Conduct, hard to isolate one variable || Person To Rest Of The Test Takers, ∙ accurate because its given over a large population || ∙ No Comparing Groups, ∙ Cheating:, "self-fulfilling prophecy" your expectations influence the results of your behavior || ∙ general data about human behavior, ∙ good for studying 1 variable || ∙ Difficult To Explain(debrief) ∙ hard to follow Ethics ∙ Experiment Expectancy Effect (EEE) (experimentor only observes expected behaviors) || or Emotional Harm Without Warning || ∙ People Can Reject and Unable to Use Accurate Data || ∙ Can get a lot of Participants ∙ measures attitudes from a large population || ∙ Issues With Type of Questions ∙ People's Willingness, only get data from the type of person who likes to answers surveys ∙ self fufilling prophecy ||
 * **METHOD** || **+ADVANTAGES+** || ** -DISADVANTAGES- ** ||
 * Interviews (regular and ex-post
 * Case Studies (focus on one
 * Experiments || ∙ Single Variable Cause and
 * Tests (Academic, Personality) || ∙ Allows Comparison To One
 * Observations(naturalistic, directed) || ∙ No Self Fulfilling Prophecy,
 * Ethics || ∙ People Stay Safe and No Physical
 * Surveys || ∙ True Random Samples

**BROTHERS //will protect you, help out in a study//**


 * Basis of Comparison**: must have 2 separate, yet still comparable groups for data comparison
 * Replication**: have to be repeated, because chance they didn't work at that specific time and to find trends
 * Operational Definitions:** need to define vocabulary, define the variables that apart of the study //example "well-informed citizen" or "sense of fashion"//
 * Technique** to collect data must be a valid measure: "good measuring stick"
 * Hypothesis** matches the conclusions: can't make conclusions that weren't in the study itself, you can't prove the opposite go your hypothesis
 * Ethics:** Participant must be informed of the study that is going on, and must be allowed to deny participation at any time. They must also be told the nature of the study. The person conducting the study must also be prepared for any side effects the study may have and must be able to aid the participant if these consequences occur.
 * Random Samples:** how to get everyone in your study, Random Sample.
 * Sample Selection/Standardization:** everyone in target population had a chance to participate, process to randomly select people


 * Confounding variables:** things you can't plan for that cause problems for data, "intervening variable" //example collecting data from homerooms on Bagel Friday//


 * HIDE DICE //don't gamble; experiments are not games of chance// **
 * Hypothesis**: if, then, (because)
 * Independent Variable**: what you manipulate (mnemonic device)
 * Dependent Variable:** what you think will change (memory)
 * Ethics**


 * Definitions(operational)**
 * Intervening Variables:** (words were repeated, people were talking)
 * Control Group:** (group that had no mnemonic device/gets placebo)
 * Experimental Group:** (mnemonic device group/gets independent variable)

**RANDOM/ DON'T PLUG IN DIRECTLY TERMS:** Self Fulfilling Prophecy- Is a prediction that causes something to become true. Placebo Effect- A sugar pill that is taken in an experiment to a control group but in some cases people actually believe the pill worked in which that person physically/mentally is cured (Mind Over Matter) Confounding Variables- A factor that was not planed for that had a influence on the data collected in a study or experiment. Correlation Studies- To collect data from two variables and try to connect or relate each variables. Law of Correlation- The correlation does not equal the causation.


 * Correlation Study**
 * Specifically isolated 2 variables to check to see if there's a relationship between them
 * when both factors increase/decrease: positive correlation
 * when one increases and the other decreases: negative correlation
 * correlation does NOT = causation
 * shown as a percentage of correlation, expressed with coefficient from 0 -> 1 (0->100%)


 * FUN FLAWED STUDY PRACTICE!!! **

Yale University child psychologist Kyle Pruett, “proved” that babies reared by their fathers develop faster than babies reared by their mothers. He tested 17 infants and found that they scored way above the averages on standardized development tests. His findings were published in Psychology Today. Pruett says that the babies were distinguished by the amount of love and attention they got from both parents.

SHRED THIS ONE UP But make sure you can clearly explain how your flaws connect to BROTHERS or a Confounding/Intervening Variable (Get 7 really good ones!)

**SUPER FANTASTIC FUN RESEARCH DESIGN PRACTICE!!!**

Take one of the hypotheses below and create a list of procedures that could be used to design a study around.

People who are usually late will improve their on-time behavior IF they carry a datebook with them at all times.

Teens can improve their ability to recall their dreams if they keep a notebook and writing tool where they will notice them immediately upon waking up.

Dog owners are friendlier people than people who own cats.

People who read the daily newspaper on a regular basis have higher IQs than people who do not read the paper.

Teens with short haircuts get better grades in 1-level classes than other teens.

**CLASS NOTES AND SLIDES** Use the presentation below to review the notes and slides from class.

media type="custom" key="10742462"

__**Miller's Magic Number (demonstrated in class with food/memory activity)**__ -7 (plus or minus two) pieces of information can be held in short term memory. -As the eighth piece of info is added the others get "bumped" out. -"Chunking" information into a category will increase short term memory.

Example of short term memory loss media type="youtube" key="Jk7WuvNKe_g" height="315" width="420"